Exploring the Causes and Management Barriers of Maternal Obesity in Iran: A Qualitative Study
Abstract
Objective: Obesity is a global health threat, especially among women of reproductive age, and it adversely affects the health of both mothers and their children. This study aimed to identify and analyze the causes and management challenges of maternal obesity in Iran from the perspectives of key informants.
Materials and methods: This is a qualitative study. We conducted semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 20 experts, from September to December 2023. We analyzed data using Leichter’s (1979) framework throught an inductive-deductive approach, facilitaed with MAXQDA 2020 software.
Results: We identified challenges in managing maternal obesity and categorized them into 10 main categories and 21 sub-categories, grouped within five constructs according to Leichter’s framework: Situational factors (climate changes and international sanctions), Structural factors (high prevalence of overweight and obesity among women and unfavorable economic conditions), Socio-cultural factors (misconceptions and misuse of traditional Iranian medicine), Environmental or International factors (social norms and values, and the limited influence of international organizations), and Governance and Executive factors (weak governance by the Ministry of Health and Medical Education (MoHME) and poor inter-sectoral cooperation).
Conclusion: Addressing maternal obesity is essential to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Current challenges such as food insecurity, economic decline, and insufficient maternal awareness threaten maternal health in relation to obesity. Tackling these issues requires a coordinated, multi-sectoral approach involving healthcare system strengthening, public awareness campaigns, and empowerment of women and families. Prioritizing maternal obesity within national health agendas is critical for an effective response. Further research on maternal obesity in Iran is recommended to uncover root causes and develop effective interventions, providing policymakers with the evidence needed for informed decision-making.
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2. Global Nutrition Report, Country Nutrition Profiles: Iran (Islamic Republic of). https://globalnutritionreport.org/resources/nutrition-profiles/asia/southern-asia/iran-islamic-republic.
3. Briony Hill. Expanding our understanding and use of the ecological systems theory model for the prevention of maternal obesity: A new socioecological framework. Obesity Reviews. 2020;22(3).
4. Heslehurst N, Newham J, Maniatopoulos G, Fleetwood C, Robalino S, Rankin J. Implementation of pregnancy weight management and obesity guidelines: a meta-synthesis of healthcare professionals’ barriers and facilitators using the Theoretical Domains Framework. Obes Rev. 2014;15(6):462–86.
5. Awoke MA, Skouteris H, Makama M, Harrison CL, Wycherley TP, Moran LJ. The Relationship of Diet and Physical Activity with Weight Gain and Weight Gain Prevention in Women of Reproductive Age. J Clin Med. 2021;10(11):2485.
6. McAuliffe FM, Killeen SL, Jacob CM, Hanson MA, Hadar E, McIntyre HD, et al. Management of prepregnancy, pregnancy, and postpartum obesity from the FIGO Pregnancy and Non‐Communicable Diseases Committee: A FIGO (International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics) guideline. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2020;151(S1):16–36.
7. OECD, The Heavy Burden of Obesity: The Economics of Prevention. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/the-heavy-burden-of-obesity_67450d67-en.
8. Ku CW, Leow SH, Ong LS, Erwin C, Ong I, Ng XW, et al. Developing a lifestyle intervention program for overweight or obese preconception, pregnant and postpartum women using qualitative methods. Scientific Reports. 2022;12(1):2511.
9. Spencer L, Rollo M, Hauck Y, MacDonald-Wicks L, Wood L, Hutchesson M, et al. The effect of weight management interventions that include a diet component on weight-related outcomes in pregnant and postpartum women: a systematic review protocol. JBI Database System Rev Implement Rep. 2015;13(1):88–98.
10. Farajzadegan Z, Pozveh ZA. The design of maternal centered life-style modification program for weight gain management during pregnancy - a study protocol. J Res Med Sci. 2013;18(8):683–7.
11. Saffari M, Pakpour AH, Mohammadi-Zeidi I, Samadi M, Chen H. Long-Term Effect of Motivational Interviewing on Dietary Intake and Weight Loss in Iranian Obese/Overweight Women. Health Promot Perspect. 2014;4(2):206–13.
12. Nourizadeh R, Azami S, Farshbaf-Khalili A, Mehrabi E. The Effect of Motivational Interviewing on Women with Overweight and Obesity Before Conception. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2020;52(9):859–66.
13. Kiani Asiabar A, Amin Shokravi F, Hajifaraji M, Zayeri F. The effect of an educational intervention in early pregnancy with spouse’s participation on optimal gestational weight gain in pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. Health Educ Res. 2018;33(6):535–47.
14. E E, S MAC, A FK, M AJ, M M. The effect of a lifestyle training package on physical activity and nutritional status in obese and overweight pregnant women: A randomized controlled clinical trial. International journal of nursing practice. 2022;28(6).
15. Rassam F, Khedmat L, Khatami F. Effects of Community-Based Interventions in Reducing the Obesity and Overweight Rate among Iranian Women Using Urban Health Equity Assessment and Response Tool. International Journal of Travel Medicine and Global Health. 2019;7(3):99–104.
16. Bonakdar SA, Dorosty Motlagh AR, Bagherniya M, Ranjbar G, Daryabeygi-Khotbehsara R, Mohajeri SAR, et al. Pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index and Maternal Nutrition in Relation to Infant Birth Size. Clin Nutr Res. 2019;8(2):129.
17. Mehrabi F, Ahmaripour N, Jalali-Farahani S, Amiri P. Barriers to weight management in pregnant mothers with obesity: a qualitative study on mothers with low socioeconomic background. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2021;21(1):779.
18. Flannery C, McHugh S, Anaba AE, Clifford E, O’Riordan M, Kenny LC, et al. Enablers and barriers to physical activity in overweight and obese pregnant women: an analysis informed by the theoretical domains framework and COM-B model. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2018;18(1):178.
19. Baheiraei A, Mirghafourvand M, Charandabi SMA, Mohammadi E. Facilitators and Inhibitors of Health-promoting Behaviors: The Experience of Iranian Women of Reproductive Age. Int J Prev Med. 2013;4(8):929–39.
20. Kaloiya GS, Kaur T, Ranjan P, Chopra S, Sarkar S, Kumari A, et al. Counselling and Behaviour Modification Techniques for the Management of Obesity in Postpartum and Midlife Women: A Practical Guide for Clinicians. J Obstet Gynaecol India. 2022;72(2):134–40.
21. Madden SK, Blewitt C, Hill B, O’Connor A, Meechan D, Skouteris H. “It’s just the nature of the work”: Barriers and enablers to the health and well-being of preconception, pregnant and postpartum working women in a community service organisation. Health Soc Care Community. 2022;30(6):e6475–86.
22. Leichter HM. A Comparative Approach to Policy Analysis: Health Care Policy in Four Nations. 1 nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
23. Guest G, Namey E, Chen M. A simple method to assess and report thematic saturation in qualitative research. PLoS One. 2020;15(5):e0232076.
24. Hennink MM, Kaiser BN, Marconi VC. Code Saturation Versus Meaning Saturation: How Many Interviews Are Enough?. Qual Health Res. 2017;27(4):591–608.
25. Fereday J, Muir-Cochrane E. Demonstrating Rigor Using Thematic Analysis: A Hybrid Approach of Inductive and Deductive Coding and Theme Development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 2006;5(1):80–92.
26. Braun V, Clarke V. Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health. 2019;11(4):589-597.
27. Borazjani M, Amini M, Faghih S. Perceived Barriers to Weight Loss: A Qualitative Study of the Lived Experiences of Women with Obesity in Shiraz. Journal of Nutrition and Food Security. 2022;7(1):60–8.
28. May LE, Moss SJ, Szumilewicz A, Santos-Rocha R, Shojaeian NA. Barriers and Facilitators of Physical Activity in Pregnancy and Postpartum Among Iranian Women: A Scoping Review. Healthcare (Basel). 2024;12(23):2416.
29. Mirzania M, Yunesian M, Gharibzadeh F, Firooz MH, Sanei AZ, Moeini P. Barriers to active transport modes in Tehran, Iran: a qualitative study from the citizens’ perspective. BMC Public Health. 2025;25(1):2015.
30. Mahdaviani B, Soleimani Z, Selk-Ghaffari M, Pourgharib shahi MH, Masoumi S, Kordi R. Barriers to physical activity in the Iranian population: findings from the STEPwise surveillance 2021. BMC Public Health. 2024;24:2610.
31. Alimoradi Z, Kazemi F, Estaki T, Mirmiran P. Household food security in Iran: systematic review of Iranian articles. Advances in Nursing & Midwifery. 2015;24(87):63–76.
32. Hejazi J, Emamgholipour S. The Effects of the Re-imposition of US Sanctions on Food Security in Iran. Int J Health Policy Manag. 2020;11(5):651–7.
33. Langley‐Evans SC, Pearce J, Ellis S. Overweight, obesity and excessive weight gain in pregnancy as risk factors for adverse pregnancy outcomes: A narrative review. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2022;35(2):250–64.
34. Wadden TA, Tronieri JS, Butryn ML. Lifestyle Modification Approaches for the Treatment of Obesity in Adults. Am Psychol. 2020;75(2):235–51.
35. Loloei S, Pouraram H, Majdzadeh R, Takian A, Goshtaei M, Djazayery A. Policy analysis of salt reduction in bread in Iran. AIMS Public Health. 2019;6(4):534.
36. Esteghamati A, Noshad S, Nazeri A, Khalilzadeh O, Khalili M, Nakhjavani M. Patterns of fruit and vegetable consumption among Iranian adults: a SuRFNCD-2007 study. Br J Nutr. 2012;108(1):177-81.
37. Shariati JAD, Khosromanesh R, Asadolahi A. Challenges of Physical Activity of Iranian Women in Different Stages of Life. Sport Management Journal. 2022;14(4):133–116.
38. May LE, Moss SJ, Szumilewicz A, Santos-Rocha R, Shojaeian NA. Barriers and Facilitators of Physical Activity in Pregnancy and Postpartum Among Iranian Women: A Scoping Review. Healthcare (Basel). 2024;12(23):2416.
39. Mazloomymahmoodabad SS, Sadeghi S, Khodayarian M, Nadjarzadeh A, Fallahzadeh H. Exploring the nutritional beliefs of pregnant women in Yazd city. J Prev Med Hyg. 2020;61(4):E545–52.
40. Gheibizadeh M, Abedi HA, Mohammadi E, Abedi P. Iranian women and care providers’ perceptions of equitable prenatal care: A qualitative study. Nurs Ethics. 2016;23(4):465–77.
41. Mehrabi F, Ahmaripour N, Jalali-Farahani S, Amiri P. Barriers to weight management in pregnant mothers with obesity: a qualitative study on mothers with low socioeconomic background. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2021;21:779.
42. Mohammadi-Nasrabadi F, Ghodsi D, Haghighian-Roudsari A, Esfarjani F, Khoshfetrat MR, Houshialsadat Z, et al. Economic Sanctions Affecting Household Food and Nutrition Security and Policies to Cope With Them: A Systematic Review. Int J Health Policy Manag. 2023;12:7362.
43. May JF. The Role of Population Policies. Études. 2012;417(11):441–52.
44. de Silva T, Tenreyro S. Population Control Policies and Fertility Convergence. J Econ Perspect. 2017;31(4):205–28.
45. World Health Organization, Report of the commission on ending childhood obesity. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241510066/, 2016.
46. World Health Organization, Governance for health in the 21st century. https://iris.who.int
items/4040d940-3058-4674-99f3-e534cf9ad810/, 2012.
47. Food and Agriculture Organization, The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World. https://www.fao.org/publications/fao-flagship-publications/the-state-of-food-security-and-nutrition-in-the-world/en/, 2025.
48. World Health Organization, Implementation roadmap 2023-2030 for the Global action plan. https://www.who.int/teams/noncommunicable-diseases/governance/roadmap.
49. Fayaz-Bakhsh A, Goodarzi Z. Critical look at the user satisfaction with asynchronous telemedicine. Telemed
J E Health. 2013;19(7):568.
50. Institute of Medicine (US) and National Research Council (US) Committee to Reexamine IOM Pregnancy Weight Guidelines. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Rasmussen KM, Yaktine AL, editors. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2009.
51. Puhl RM, Himmelstein MS, Pearl RL. Weight stigma as a psychosocial contributor to obesity. Am Psychol. 2020;75(2):274–89.
52. World Health Organization, implementing effective actions for improving adolescent nutrition. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241513708/, 2018.
53. Heslehurst N, Simpson H, Ells LJ, Rankin J, Wilkinson J, Lang R, et al. The impact of maternal BMI status on pregnancy outcomes with immediate short-term obstetric resource implications: a meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2008;9(6):635–83.
54. Opray N, Grivell RM, Deussen AR, Dodd JM. Directed preconception health programs and interventions for improving pregnancy outcomes for women who are overweight or obese. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;2015(7):CD010932.
55. Jacob CM, Killeen SL, McAuliffe FM, Stephenson J, Hod M, Diaz Yamal I, et al. Prevention of noncommunicable diseases by interventions in the preconception period: A FIGO position paper for action by healthcare practitioners. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics. 2020;151(S1):6–15.
2. Global Nutrition Report, Country Nutrition Profiles: Iran (Islamic Republic of). https://globalnutritionreport.org/resources/nutrition-profiles/asia/southern-asia/iran-islamic-republic.
3. Briony Hill. Expanding our understanding and use of the ecological systems theory model for the prevention of maternal obesity: A new socioecological framework. Obesity Reviews. 2020;22(3).
4. Heslehurst N, Newham J, Maniatopoulos G, Fleetwood C, Robalino S, Rankin J. Implementation of pregnancy weight management and obesity guidelines: a meta-synthesis of healthcare professionals’ barriers and facilitators using the Theoretical Domains Framework. Obes Rev. 2014;15(6):462–86.
5. Awoke MA, Skouteris H, Makama M, Harrison CL, Wycherley TP, Moran LJ. The Relationship of Diet and Physical Activity with Weight Gain and Weight Gain Prevention in Women of Reproductive Age. J Clin Med. 2021;10(11):2485.
6. McAuliffe FM, Killeen SL, Jacob CM, Hanson MA, Hadar E, McIntyre HD, et al. Management of prepregnancy, pregnancy, and postpartum obesity from the FIGO Pregnancy and Non‐Communicable Diseases Committee: A FIGO (International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics) guideline. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2020;151(S1):16–36.
7. OECD, The Heavy Burden of Obesity: The Economics of Prevention. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/the-heavy-burden-of-obesity_67450d67-en.
8. Ku CW, Leow SH, Ong LS, Erwin C, Ong I, Ng XW, et al. Developing a lifestyle intervention program for overweight or obese preconception, pregnant and postpartum women using qualitative methods. Scientific Reports. 2022;12(1):2511.
9. Spencer L, Rollo M, Hauck Y, MacDonald-Wicks L, Wood L, Hutchesson M, et al. The effect of weight management interventions that include a diet component on weight-related outcomes in pregnant and postpartum women: a systematic review protocol. JBI Database System Rev Implement Rep. 2015;13(1):88–98.
10. Farajzadegan Z, Pozveh ZA. The design of maternal centered life-style modification program for weight gain management during pregnancy - a study protocol. J Res Med Sci. 2013;18(8):683–7.
11. Saffari M, Pakpour AH, Mohammadi-Zeidi I, Samadi M, Chen H. Long-Term Effect of Motivational Interviewing on Dietary Intake and Weight Loss in Iranian Obese/Overweight Women. Health Promot Perspect. 2014;4(2):206–13.
12. Nourizadeh R, Azami S, Farshbaf-Khalili A, Mehrabi E. The Effect of Motivational Interviewing on Women with Overweight and Obesity Before Conception. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2020;52(9):859–66.
13. Kiani Asiabar A, Amin Shokravi F, Hajifaraji M, Zayeri F. The effect of an educational intervention in early pregnancy with spouse’s participation on optimal gestational weight gain in pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. Health Educ Res. 2018;33(6):535–47.
14. E E, S MAC, A FK, M AJ, M M. The effect of a lifestyle training package on physical activity and nutritional status in obese and overweight pregnant women: A randomized controlled clinical trial. International journal of nursing practice. 2022;28(6).
15. Rassam F, Khedmat L, Khatami F. Effects of Community-Based Interventions in Reducing the Obesity and Overweight Rate among Iranian Women Using Urban Health Equity Assessment and Response Tool. International Journal of Travel Medicine and Global Health. 2019;7(3):99–104.
16. Bonakdar SA, Dorosty Motlagh AR, Bagherniya M, Ranjbar G, Daryabeygi-Khotbehsara R, Mohajeri SAR, et al. Pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index and Maternal Nutrition in Relation to Infant Birth Size. Clin Nutr Res. 2019;8(2):129.
17. Mehrabi F, Ahmaripour N, Jalali-Farahani S, Amiri P. Barriers to weight management in pregnant mothers with obesity: a qualitative study on mothers with low socioeconomic background. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2021;21(1):779.
18. Flannery C, McHugh S, Anaba AE, Clifford E, O’Riordan M, Kenny LC, et al. Enablers and barriers to physical activity in overweight and obese pregnant women: an analysis informed by the theoretical domains framework and COM-B model. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2018;18(1):178.
19. Baheiraei A, Mirghafourvand M, Charandabi SMA, Mohammadi E. Facilitators and Inhibitors of Health-promoting Behaviors: The Experience of Iranian Women of Reproductive Age. Int J Prev Med. 2013;4(8):929–39.
20. Kaloiya GS, Kaur T, Ranjan P, Chopra S, Sarkar S, Kumari A, et al. Counselling and Behaviour Modification Techniques for the Management of Obesity in Postpartum and Midlife Women: A Practical Guide for Clinicians. J Obstet Gynaecol India. 2022;72(2):134–40.
21. Madden SK, Blewitt C, Hill B, O’Connor A, Meechan D, Skouteris H. “It’s just the nature of the work”: Barriers and enablers to the health and well-being of preconception, pregnant and postpartum working women in a community service organisation. Health Soc Care Community. 2022;30(6):e6475–86.
22. Leichter HM. A Comparative Approach to Policy Analysis: Health Care Policy in Four Nations. 1 nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
23. Guest G, Namey E, Chen M. A simple method to assess and report thematic saturation in qualitative research. PLoS One. 2020;15(5):e0232076.
24. Hennink MM, Kaiser BN, Marconi VC. Code Saturation Versus Meaning Saturation: How Many Interviews Are Enough?. Qual Health Res. 2017;27(4):591–608.
25. Fereday J, Muir-Cochrane E. Demonstrating Rigor Using Thematic Analysis: A Hybrid Approach of Inductive and Deductive Coding and Theme Development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 2006;5(1):80–92.
26. Braun V, Clarke V. Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health. 2019;11(4):589-597.
27. Borazjani M, Amini M, Faghih S. Perceived Barriers to Weight Loss: A Qualitative Study of the Lived Experiences of Women with Obesity in Shiraz. Journal of Nutrition and Food Security. 2022;7(1):60–8.
28. May LE, Moss SJ, Szumilewicz A, Santos-Rocha R, Shojaeian NA. Barriers and Facilitators of Physical Activity in Pregnancy and Postpartum Among Iranian Women: A Scoping Review. Healthcare (Basel). 2024;12(23):2416.
29. Mirzania M, Yunesian M, Gharibzadeh F, Firooz MH, Sanei AZ, Moeini P. Barriers to active transport modes in Tehran, Iran: a qualitative study from the citizens’ perspective. BMC Public Health. 2025;25(1):2015.
30. Mahdaviani B, Soleimani Z, Selk-Ghaffari M, Pourgharib shahi MH, Masoumi S, Kordi R. Barriers to physical activity in the Iranian population: findings from the STEPwise surveillance 2021. BMC Public Health. 2024;24:2610.
31. Alimoradi Z, Kazemi F, Estaki T, Mirmiran P. Household food security in Iran: systematic review of Iranian articles. Advances in Nursing & Midwifery. 2015;24(87):63–76.
32. Hejazi J, Emamgholipour S. The Effects of the Re-imposition of US Sanctions on Food Security in Iran. Int J Health Policy Manag. 2020;11(5):651–7.
33. Langley‐Evans SC, Pearce J, Ellis S. Overweight, obesity and excessive weight gain in pregnancy as risk factors for adverse pregnancy outcomes: A narrative review. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2022;35(2):250–64.
34. Wadden TA, Tronieri JS, Butryn ML. Lifestyle Modification Approaches for the Treatment of Obesity in Adults. Am Psychol. 2020;75(2):235–51.
35. Loloei S, Pouraram H, Majdzadeh R, Takian A, Goshtaei M, Djazayery A. Policy analysis of salt reduction in bread in Iran. AIMS Public Health. 2019;6(4):534.
36. Esteghamati A, Noshad S, Nazeri A, Khalilzadeh O, Khalili M, Nakhjavani M. Patterns of fruit and vegetable consumption among Iranian adults: a SuRFNCD-2007 study. Br J Nutr. 2012;108(1):177-81.
37. Shariati JAD, Khosromanesh R, Asadolahi A. Challenges of Physical Activity of Iranian Women in Different Stages of Life. Sport Management Journal. 2022;14(4):133–116.
38. May LE, Moss SJ, Szumilewicz A, Santos-Rocha R, Shojaeian NA. Barriers and Facilitators of Physical Activity in Pregnancy and Postpartum Among Iranian Women: A Scoping Review. Healthcare (Basel). 2024;12(23):2416.
39. Mazloomymahmoodabad SS, Sadeghi S, Khodayarian M, Nadjarzadeh A, Fallahzadeh H. Exploring the nutritional beliefs of pregnant women in Yazd city. J Prev Med Hyg. 2020;61(4):E545–52.
40. Gheibizadeh M, Abedi HA, Mohammadi E, Abedi P. Iranian women and care providers’ perceptions of equitable prenatal care: A qualitative study. Nurs Ethics. 2016;23(4):465–77.
41. Mehrabi F, Ahmaripour N, Jalali-Farahani S, Amiri P. Barriers to weight management in pregnant mothers with obesity: a qualitative study on mothers with low socioeconomic background. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2021;21:779.
42. Mohammadi-Nasrabadi F, Ghodsi D, Haghighian-Roudsari A, Esfarjani F, Khoshfetrat MR, Houshialsadat Z, et al. Economic Sanctions Affecting Household Food and Nutrition Security and Policies to Cope With Them: A Systematic Review. Int J Health Policy Manag. 2023;12:7362.
43. May JF. The Role of Population Policies. Études. 2012;417(11):441–52.
44. de Silva T, Tenreyro S. Population Control Policies and Fertility Convergence. J Econ Perspect. 2017;31(4):205–28.
45. World Health Organization, Report of the commission on ending childhood obesity. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241510066/, 2016.
46. World Health Organization, Governance for health in the 21st century. https://iris.who.int
items/4040d940-3058-4674-99f3-e534cf9ad810/, 2012.
47. Food and Agriculture Organization, The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World. https://www.fao.org/publications/fao-flagship-publications/the-state-of-food-security-and-nutrition-in-the-world/en/, 2025.
48. World Health Organization, Implementation roadmap 2023-2030 for the Global action plan. https://www.who.int/teams/noncommunicable-diseases/governance/roadmap.
49. Fayaz-Bakhsh A, Goodarzi Z. Critical look at the user satisfaction with asynchronous telemedicine. Telemed
J E Health. 2013;19(7):568.
50. Institute of Medicine (US) and National Research Council (US) Committee to Reexamine IOM Pregnancy Weight Guidelines. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Rasmussen KM, Yaktine AL, editors. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2009.
51. Puhl RM, Himmelstein MS, Pearl RL. Weight stigma as a psychosocial contributor to obesity. Am Psychol. 2020;75(2):274–89.
52. World Health Organization, implementing effective actions for improving adolescent nutrition. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241513708/, 2018.
53. Heslehurst N, Simpson H, Ells LJ, Rankin J, Wilkinson J, Lang R, et al. The impact of maternal BMI status on pregnancy outcomes with immediate short-term obstetric resource implications: a meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2008;9(6):635–83.
54. Opray N, Grivell RM, Deussen AR, Dodd JM. Directed preconception health programs and interventions for improving pregnancy outcomes for women who are overweight or obese. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;2015(7):CD010932.
55. Jacob CM, Killeen SL, McAuliffe FM, Stephenson J, Hod M, Diaz Yamal I, et al. Prevention of noncommunicable diseases by interventions in the preconception period: A FIGO position paper for action by healthcare practitioners. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics. 2020;151(S1):6–15.
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| Issue | Vol 20, No 1 (March 2026) | |
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How to Cite
1.
Kalantari E, Tajvar M, Naderimagham S, Takian A. Exploring the Causes and Management Barriers of Maternal Obesity in Iran: A Qualitative Study. J Family Reprod Health. 2026;20(1):19-31.
