Breast Milk and Brain: The Influence of Iodine and Neurotrophic and Growth Factors on Children’s Neurodevelopment-A Secondary Analysis
Abstract
Background: Several bioactive components are present in breast milk, which contribute to enhancing growth and development.
Objectives: This study targeted to investigate the potential role of breast milk iodine concentration (BMIC), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-I), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) during the early stage of lactation in child neurocognitive development.
Methods: In this secondary analysis, we examined 122 breastfeeding mothers and their healthy children, all of whom were breastfed for at least six months. Levels of BDNF, IGF-1, and BMIC were assessed in breast milk samples obtained between the third and fifth days after lactation began. Three-year-old children were administered the Bayley-III screening test to assess their cognitive, motor, and language development.
Results: The median (interquartile range) concentrations of iodine, BDNF, and IGF-1 in breast milk during the starting few days of lactation were 285.0 (181.0-366.0) µg/l, 0.59 (0.52-0.76) ng/ml, and 12.5 (9.6-18.3) ng/ml, respectively. The mean (standard deviation) cognitive, motor, and language scores were 101.0 (10.8), 93.4 (14.6), 100.1 (13.5) and, respectively. Linear regression models revealed a negative relation between breast milk iodine and children’s cognitive development ((β unadjusted = -0.004 (P = 0.010); β adjusted = -0.003 (P = 0.024)). However, no associations were found between breast milk BDNF and IGF-1 and cognitive, language, or motor scores in three-year-olds.
Conclusion: Our findings indicated that early exposure to these breast milk components has no substantial association with neurodevelopment in three-year-old children. Further research is needed on breast milk components’ impact on child health.
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2. Cai S, Pang WW, Low YL, Sim LW, Sam SC, Bruntraeger MB, et al. Infant feeding effects on early neurocognitive development in Asian children. Am
J Clin Nutr. 2015;101(2):326-36.
3. Rantalainen V, Lahti J, Henriksson M, Kajantie E, Mikkonen M, Eriksson JG, et al. Association between breastfeeding and better preserved cognitive ability in an elderly cohort of Finnish men. Psychol Med. 2018;48(6):939-51.
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5. World Health Organization. Report of the expert consultation on the optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding, Geneva, Switzerland, 28-30 March 2001. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001.
6. Ballard O, Morrow AL. Human milk composition: nutrients and bioactive factors. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2013;60(1):49-74.
7. Mosca F, Giannì ML. Human milk: composition and health benefits. Pediatr Med Chir. 2017;39(2):155.
8. Nolan LS, Parks OB, Good M. A Review of the Immunomodulating Components of Maternal Breast Milk and Protection Against Necrotizing Enterocolitis. Nutrients. 2019;12(1).
9. Isaacs EB, Fischl BR, Quinn BT, Chong WK, Gadian DG, Lucas A. Impact of breast milk on intelligence quotient, brain size, and white matter development. Pediatr Res. 2010;67(4):357-62.
10. Kafouri S, Kramer M, Leonard G, Perron M, Pike B, Richer L, et al. Breastfeeding and brain structure in adolescence. Int J Epidemiol. 2013;42(1):150-9.
11. Luby JL, Belden AC, Whalen D, Harms MP, Barch DM. Breastfeeding and Childhood IQ: The Mediating Role of Gray Matter Volume. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;55(5):367-75.
12. Deoni S, Dean D 3rd, Joelson S, O'Regan J, Schneider N. Early nutrition influences developmental myelination and cognition in infants and young children. Neuroimage. 2018;178:649-659.
13. Deoni SC, Dean DC, 3rd, Piryatinsky I, O'Muircheartaigh J, Waskiewicz N, Lehman K, et al. Breastfeeding and early white matter development: A cross-sectional study. Neuroimage. 2013;82:77-86.
14. Cerdó T, Diéguez E, Campoy C. Infant growth, neurodevelopment and gut microbiota during infancy: which nutrients are crucial? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2019;22(6):434-41.
15. Prado EL, Dewey KG. Nutrition and brain development in early life. Nutr Rev. 2014;72(4):267-84.
16. Fu M, Wu W, Guo W, Jin Q, Meng Q, Gao Y, et al. Effects of maternal iodine nutritional status on neurodevelopmental and cognitive function of rat offspring. Front Nutr. 2022;9:996092.
17. Wu M, Wu D, Wu W, Li H, Cao L, Xu J, et al. Relationship Between Iodine Concentration in Maternal Colostrum and Neurobehavioral Development of Infants in Shanghai, China. J Child Neurol. 2016;31(9):1108-13.
18. Bekinschtein P, Cammarota M, Izquierdo I, Medina JH. BDNF and memory formation and storage. Neuroscientist. 2008;14(2):147-56.
19. Dyer AH, Vahdatpour C, Sanfeliu A, Tropea D. The role of Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) in brain development, maturation and neuroplasticity. Neuroscience. 2016;325:89-99.
20. Berlanga-Macías C, Sánchez-López M, Solera-Martínez M, Díez-Fernández A, Ballesteros-Yáñez I, Castillo-Sarmiento CA, et al. Relationship between exclusive breastfeeding and brain-derived neurotrophic
factor in children. PLoS One. 2021;16(3):e0248023.
21. Hansen-Pupp I, Hövel H, Löfqvist C, Hellström-Westas L, Fellman V, Hüppi PS, et al. Circulatory insulin-like growth factor-I and brain volumes in relation to neurodevelopmental outcome in very preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 2013;74(5):564-9.
22. Hellström W, Hortensius LM, Löfqvist C, Hellgren G, Tataranno ML, Ley D, et al. Postnatal serum IGF-1 levels associate with brain volumes at term in extremely preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 2023;93(3):666-74.
23. Nassar MF, Younis NT, El-Arab SE, Fawzi FA. Neuro-developmental outcome and brain-derived neurotrophic factor level in relation to feeding practice in early infancy. Matern Child Nutr. 2011;7(2):188-97.
24. Li R, Xia W, Zhang Z, Wu K. S100B protein, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in human milk. PLoS One. 2011;6(6):e21663.
25. Perrin MT, Pawlak R, Dean LL, Christis A, Friend L. A cross-sectional study of fatty acids and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in human milk from lactating women following vegan, vegetarian, and omnivore diets. Eur J Nutr. 2019;58(6):2401-10.
26. Velasco I, Santos C, Limón J, Pascual E, Zarza L, Marina E, et al. Bioactive Components in Human Milk Along the First Month of Life: Effects of Iodine Supplementation during Pregnancy. Ann Nutr Metab. 2016;68(2):130-6.
27. Nazeri P, Tahmasebinejad Z, Pearce EN, Zarezadeh Z, Tajeddini T, Mirmiran P, et al. Does maternal iodine supplementation during the lactation have a positive impact on neurodevelopment of children? Three-year follow up of a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Nutr. 2021;60(7):4083-91.
28. Soleimani F, Azari N, Vameghi R, Sajedi F, Shahshahani S, Karimi H, et al. Is the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Developmental Screening Test, Valid and Reliable for Persian Speaking Children? Iran J Pediatr. 2016;26(5):e5540.
29. Pharoah P, Buttfield IH, Hetzel BS. Neurological damage to the fetus resulting from severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy. Int J Epidemiol. 2012;41(3):589-92.
30. Skeaff SA. Iodine deficiency in pregnancy: the effect on neurodevelopment in the child. Nutrients. 2011;3(2):265-73.
31. Zimmermann MB. The effects of iodine deficiency in pregnancy and infancy. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2012;26 Suppl 1:108-17.
32. Chierici R, Saccomandi D, Vigi V. Dietary
supplements for the lactating mother: influence on the trace element content of milk. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 1999;88(430):7-13.
33. Mulrine HM, Skeaff SA, Ferguson EL, Gray AR, Valeix P. Breast-milk iodine concentration declines over the first 6 mo postpartum in iodine-deficient women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92(4):849-56.
34. Li F, Wan S, Zhang L, Li B, He Y, Shen H, et al. A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Iodine Excess on the Intellectual Development of Children in Areas with High Iodine Levels in their Drinking Water. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2022;200(4):1580-90.
35. Ghassabian A, Sundaram R, Chahal N, McLain AC, Bell E, Lawrence DA, et al. Determinants of neonatal brain-derived neurotrophic factor and association with child development. Dev Psychopathol. 2017;29(4):1499-511.
36. Dangat K, Kilari A, Mehendale S, Lalwani S, Joshi S. Higher levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor but similar nerve growth factor in human milk in women with preeclampsia. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2013;31(3):209-13.
37. Ismail AM, Babers GM, El Rehany MA. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor in sera of breastfed epileptic infants and in breastmilk of their mothers. Breastfeed Med. 2015;10(5):277-82.
38. DeBoer MD, Elwood SE, Platts-Mills JA, McDermid JM, Scharf RJ, Rogawski McQuade ET, et al. Association of Circulating Biomarkers with Growth and Cognitive Development in Rural Tanzania: A Secondary Analysis of the Early Life Interventions in Childhood Growth and Development In Tanzania (ELICIT) Study. J Nutr. 2023;153(5):1453-60.
39. Kon IY, Shilina NM, Gmoshinskaya MV, Ivanushkina TA. The study of breast milk IGF-1, leptin, ghrelin and adiponectin levels as possible reasons of high weight gain in breast-fed infants. Ann Nutr Metab. 2014;65(4):317-23.
40. Nazeri P, Tahmasebinejad Z, Hedayati M, Mirmiran P, Azizi F. Is breast milk iodine concentration an influential factor in growth- and obesity-related hormones and infants' growth parameters? Matern Child Nutr. 2021;17(1):e13078.
2. Cai S, Pang WW, Low YL, Sim LW, Sam SC, Bruntraeger MB, et al. Infant feeding effects on early neurocognitive development in Asian children. Am
J Clin Nutr. 2015;101(2):326-36.
3. Rantalainen V, Lahti J, Henriksson M, Kajantie E, Mikkonen M, Eriksson JG, et al. Association between breastfeeding and better preserved cognitive ability in an elderly cohort of Finnish men. Psychol Med. 2018;48(6):939-51.
4. Victora CG, Horta BL, Loret de Mola C, Quevedo L, Pinheiro RT, Gigante DP, et al. Association between breastfeeding and intelligence, educational attainment, and income at 30 years of age: a prospective birth cohort study from Brazil. Lancet Glob Health. 2015;3(4):e199-205.
5. World Health Organization. Report of the expert consultation on the optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding, Geneva, Switzerland, 28-30 March 2001. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001.
6. Ballard O, Morrow AL. Human milk composition: nutrients and bioactive factors. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2013;60(1):49-74.
7. Mosca F, Giannì ML. Human milk: composition and health benefits. Pediatr Med Chir. 2017;39(2):155.
8. Nolan LS, Parks OB, Good M. A Review of the Immunomodulating Components of Maternal Breast Milk and Protection Against Necrotizing Enterocolitis. Nutrients. 2019;12(1).
9. Isaacs EB, Fischl BR, Quinn BT, Chong WK, Gadian DG, Lucas A. Impact of breast milk on intelligence quotient, brain size, and white matter development. Pediatr Res. 2010;67(4):357-62.
10. Kafouri S, Kramer M, Leonard G, Perron M, Pike B, Richer L, et al. Breastfeeding and brain structure in adolescence. Int J Epidemiol. 2013;42(1):150-9.
11. Luby JL, Belden AC, Whalen D, Harms MP, Barch DM. Breastfeeding and Childhood IQ: The Mediating Role of Gray Matter Volume. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016;55(5):367-75.
12. Deoni S, Dean D 3rd, Joelson S, O'Regan J, Schneider N. Early nutrition influences developmental myelination and cognition in infants and young children. Neuroimage. 2018;178:649-659.
13. Deoni SC, Dean DC, 3rd, Piryatinsky I, O'Muircheartaigh J, Waskiewicz N, Lehman K, et al. Breastfeeding and early white matter development: A cross-sectional study. Neuroimage. 2013;82:77-86.
14. Cerdó T, Diéguez E, Campoy C. Infant growth, neurodevelopment and gut microbiota during infancy: which nutrients are crucial? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2019;22(6):434-41.
15. Prado EL, Dewey KG. Nutrition and brain development in early life. Nutr Rev. 2014;72(4):267-84.
16. Fu M, Wu W, Guo W, Jin Q, Meng Q, Gao Y, et al. Effects of maternal iodine nutritional status on neurodevelopmental and cognitive function of rat offspring. Front Nutr. 2022;9:996092.
17. Wu M, Wu D, Wu W, Li H, Cao L, Xu J, et al. Relationship Between Iodine Concentration in Maternal Colostrum and Neurobehavioral Development of Infants in Shanghai, China. J Child Neurol. 2016;31(9):1108-13.
18. Bekinschtein P, Cammarota M, Izquierdo I, Medina JH. BDNF and memory formation and storage. Neuroscientist. 2008;14(2):147-56.
19. Dyer AH, Vahdatpour C, Sanfeliu A, Tropea D. The role of Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) in brain development, maturation and neuroplasticity. Neuroscience. 2016;325:89-99.
20. Berlanga-Macías C, Sánchez-López M, Solera-Martínez M, Díez-Fernández A, Ballesteros-Yáñez I, Castillo-Sarmiento CA, et al. Relationship between exclusive breastfeeding and brain-derived neurotrophic
factor in children. PLoS One. 2021;16(3):e0248023.
21. Hansen-Pupp I, Hövel H, Löfqvist C, Hellström-Westas L, Fellman V, Hüppi PS, et al. Circulatory insulin-like growth factor-I and brain volumes in relation to neurodevelopmental outcome in very preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 2013;74(5):564-9.
22. Hellström W, Hortensius LM, Löfqvist C, Hellgren G, Tataranno ML, Ley D, et al. Postnatal serum IGF-1 levels associate with brain volumes at term in extremely preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 2023;93(3):666-74.
23. Nassar MF, Younis NT, El-Arab SE, Fawzi FA. Neuro-developmental outcome and brain-derived neurotrophic factor level in relation to feeding practice in early infancy. Matern Child Nutr. 2011;7(2):188-97.
24. Li R, Xia W, Zhang Z, Wu K. S100B protein, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in human milk. PLoS One. 2011;6(6):e21663.
25. Perrin MT, Pawlak R, Dean LL, Christis A, Friend L. A cross-sectional study of fatty acids and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in human milk from lactating women following vegan, vegetarian, and omnivore diets. Eur J Nutr. 2019;58(6):2401-10.
26. Velasco I, Santos C, Limón J, Pascual E, Zarza L, Marina E, et al. Bioactive Components in Human Milk Along the First Month of Life: Effects of Iodine Supplementation during Pregnancy. Ann Nutr Metab. 2016;68(2):130-6.
27. Nazeri P, Tahmasebinejad Z, Pearce EN, Zarezadeh Z, Tajeddini T, Mirmiran P, et al. Does maternal iodine supplementation during the lactation have a positive impact on neurodevelopment of children? Three-year follow up of a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Nutr. 2021;60(7):4083-91.
28. Soleimani F, Azari N, Vameghi R, Sajedi F, Shahshahani S, Karimi H, et al. Is the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Developmental Screening Test, Valid and Reliable for Persian Speaking Children? Iran J Pediatr. 2016;26(5):e5540.
29. Pharoah P, Buttfield IH, Hetzel BS. Neurological damage to the fetus resulting from severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy. Int J Epidemiol. 2012;41(3):589-92.
30. Skeaff SA. Iodine deficiency in pregnancy: the effect on neurodevelopment in the child. Nutrients. 2011;3(2):265-73.
31. Zimmermann MB. The effects of iodine deficiency in pregnancy and infancy. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2012;26 Suppl 1:108-17.
32. Chierici R, Saccomandi D, Vigi V. Dietary
supplements for the lactating mother: influence on the trace element content of milk. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 1999;88(430):7-13.
33. Mulrine HM, Skeaff SA, Ferguson EL, Gray AR, Valeix P. Breast-milk iodine concentration declines over the first 6 mo postpartum in iodine-deficient women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92(4):849-56.
34. Li F, Wan S, Zhang L, Li B, He Y, Shen H, et al. A Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Iodine Excess on the Intellectual Development of Children in Areas with High Iodine Levels in their Drinking Water. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2022;200(4):1580-90.
35. Ghassabian A, Sundaram R, Chahal N, McLain AC, Bell E, Lawrence DA, et al. Determinants of neonatal brain-derived neurotrophic factor and association with child development. Dev Psychopathol. 2017;29(4):1499-511.
36. Dangat K, Kilari A, Mehendale S, Lalwani S, Joshi S. Higher levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor but similar nerve growth factor in human milk in women with preeclampsia. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2013;31(3):209-13.
37. Ismail AM, Babers GM, El Rehany MA. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor in sera of breastfed epileptic infants and in breastmilk of their mothers. Breastfeed Med. 2015;10(5):277-82.
38. DeBoer MD, Elwood SE, Platts-Mills JA, McDermid JM, Scharf RJ, Rogawski McQuade ET, et al. Association of Circulating Biomarkers with Growth and Cognitive Development in Rural Tanzania: A Secondary Analysis of the Early Life Interventions in Childhood Growth and Development In Tanzania (ELICIT) Study. J Nutr. 2023;153(5):1453-60.
39. Kon IY, Shilina NM, Gmoshinskaya MV, Ivanushkina TA. The study of breast milk IGF-1, leptin, ghrelin and adiponectin levels as possible reasons of high weight gain in breast-fed infants. Ann Nutr Metab. 2014;65(4):317-23.
40. Nazeri P, Tahmasebinejad Z, Hedayati M, Mirmiran P, Azizi F. Is breast milk iodine concentration an influential factor in growth- and obesity-related hormones and infants' growth parameters? Matern Child Nutr. 2021;17(1):e13078.
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| Issue | Vol 19, No 3 (September 2025) | |
| Section | Original Articles | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/jfrh.v19i3.20062 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Breast Milk Iodine Concentration Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 Child Neurocognitive Development | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Nazeri P, Hamzavi Zarghani N, Tahmasebinejad Z, Dashtkoohi M, Hedayati M, Mirmiran P, Shariat M, Azizi F. Breast Milk and Brain: The Influence of Iodine and Neurotrophic and Growth Factors on Children’s Neurodevelopment-A Secondary Analysis. J Family Reprod Health. 2025;19(3):232-239.
