The Relationship Between Paternal Postpartum Depression and Psychosocial Variables: A longitudinal Study in Iran
,
Abstract
Objective: This study aimed to investigate and identify the psychosocial factors that are associated with paternal postpartum depression.
Materials and methods: A longitudinal correlation study with 150 fathers was performed with three time frames (late pregnancy, postpartum, and four weeks postpartum). The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale assessed those with depression (38.7%; n=58) and those without depressive symptoms (61.3%; n=92). Psychological variables related to paternal depression were also assessed through questionnaires.
Results: Psychological variables such as marital adjustment and stress had a significant relationship with paternal depression. In addition, depressed fathers experienced less marital compatibility and more tension than non-depressed fathers.
Conclusion: These findings emphasize the importance of considering the psychosocial variables that affect paternal psychological health. Mental health professionals may be able to reduce mental disorders, stress, psychological distress, and marital maladjustment in fathers with appropriate psychological interventions.
1. Demontigny F, Girard ME, Lacharité C, Dubeau D, Devault A. Psychosocial factors associated with paternal postnatal depression. J Affect Disord 2013; 150: 44-49.
2. Veisani Y, Sayehmiri K. Prevalence of Postpartum Depression in Iran - A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. The Iranian Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Infertility 2012; 15; 21-9.
3. Choi KW, Sikkema K J, Vythilingum B, Geerts L, Faure SC, Watt MH, et al. Maternal childhood trauma, postpartum depression, and infant outcomes: Avoidant affective processing as a potential mechanism. J Affect Disord 2017; 211:107-15.
4. Lieber A. A Guide to Common Depression after Childbirth. Postpartum Depression (PPD).2019. https://www.psycom.net/depression.central.post-partum.html
5. Irvine A, Rawlinson C, Bor W, Hoehn E. Evaluation of a collaborative group intervention for mothers with moderate to severe perinatal mental illness and their infants in Australia. Infant Ment Health J, 2021; 42(4): 560-572.
6. Zhang YP, Zhang LL, Wei HH, Zhang Y, Zhang CL, Porr C. Postpartum depression and the psychosocial predictors in first-time fathers from northwestern China. Midwifery 2016; 35: 47-52.
7. National Institute of Mental Health, 2015. Major Depression Among Adults. Available at: 〈https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/prevalence/major-depression-amongadults. shtml〉. (Accessed 12 December 2016).
8. Cummings EM, Keller PS, Davies PT. Towards a family process model of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms: exploring multiple relations with child and family functioning. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2005; 46: 479-89.
9. Feldman R, Edelman Arthur I. Parent-Infant Synchrony and the Social-Emotional Development of Triplets. Dev Psychol 2004; 40: 1133-47.
10. Solantaus T, Salo S. Paternal postnatal depression: fathers emerge from the wings. Lancet 2005; 365: 2158-9.
11. Musser AK, Ahmed AH, Foli KJ, Coddington JA. Paternal postpartum depression: what health care providers should know. J Pediatr Health Care 2013; 27: 479-85.
12. Swenson CW, DePorre JA, Haefner JK, Berger MB, Fenner DE. Postpartum depression screening and pelvic floor symptoms among women referred to a specialty postpartum perineal clinic. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2018; 218: 335.e1-335.e6.
13. Tham EK, Tan J, Chong YS, Kwek K, Saw SM, Teoh OH, et al. Associations between poor subjective prenatal sleep quality and postnatal depression and anxiety symptoms. J Affect Disord 2016; 202: 91-4.
14. Ghaedrahmati M, Kazemi A, Kheirabadi G, Ebrahimi A, Bahrami M. Postpartum depression risk factors: A narrative review. J Educ Health Promot 2017;6:60.
15. Fellmeth G, Opondo C, Henderson J, Redshaw M, McNeill J, Lynn F, et al. Identifying postnatal depression: Comparison of a self-reported depression item with Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale scores at three months postpartum. J Affect Disord 2019; 251:8-14.
16. Wee KY, Skouteris H, Pier C, Richardson B, Milgrom J. Correlates of ante- and postnatal depression in fathers: a systematic review. J Affect Disord 2011; 130:358-77.
17. Cameron E E, Sedov I D, Tomfohr-Madsen L M. Prevalence of paternal depression in pregnancy and the postpartum: an updated meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 2016; 206: 189–203.
18. Escribà-Agüir V, Artazcoz L. Gender differences in postpartum depression: a longitudinal cohort study.
J Epidemiol Community Health 2011; 65: 320-6.
19. Goodman J H. Paternal postpartum depression, its relationship to maternal postpartum depression, and implications for family health. J Adv Nurs.2004; 45: 26-35.
20. Suto M, Takehara K, Yamane Y, Ota E. Effects of prenatal childbirth education for partners of pregnant women on paternal postnatal mental health and couple relationship: A systematic review. J Affect Disord 2017; 210: 115-21.
21. Kamalifard M, Hasanpoor S, Babapour Kheiroddin J, Panahi S, Bayati Payan S. Relationship between Fathers' Depression and Perceived Social Support and Stress in Postpartum Period. J Caring Sci 2014; 3: 57-66.
22. Thiruchselvam T, Dozois DJ A, Bagby R M, Lobo DSS, Ravindran LN, Quilty LC. The role of outcome expectancy in therapeutic change across psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy for depression. J Affect Disord
2019: 251: 121-9.
23. Dabson K S, Mohammad Khani P. Psychometric Characteristics of Beck Depression Inventory II in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder. Journal of Rehabilitation 2007;8: 82-88.
24. Gollan JK, Wisniewski SR, Luther JF, Eng HF, Dills JL, Sit D, Ciolino JD, Wisner KL. Generating an efficient version of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in an urban obstetrical population. J Affect Disord 2017; 208:615-20.
25. Ahmadi kani Golzar A, GoliZadeh Z. Validation of Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) for screening postpartum depression in Iran. IJPN 2015; 3:1-10.
26. Spanier GB. Measuring dyadic adjustment: New scales for assessing the quality of marriage and similar dyads. Journal of Marriage and Family 1976; 38; 15–28.
27. South SC, Krueger R F, Iacono WG. Factorial invariance of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale across gender. Psychol Assess 2009; 21: 622-8.
28. Reece SM. The parents’ expectations survey: a measure of perceived self-efficacy. Clin Nurs Res 1992; 1: 336–46.
29. Abidin R R. Parenting Stress Index: Manual. Psychological Resources, Odessa, Florida 1995.
30. Barroso NE, Hungerford GM, Garcia D, Graziano PA, Bagner DM. Psychometric properties of the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) in a high-risk sample of mothers and their infants. Psychol Assess 2016; 28: 1331-35.
31. Zimet GD, Dahlem NW, Zimet SG, Farley GK. The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Journal of Personality Assessment 1988; 52:30-41.
32. Alipour A, Aliakbari Dehkordi M, Amini F, Hashemi Jashni. Relationship between perceived social support and adherence of treatment in Diabetes mellitus type 2: mediating role of resillency and hope. Journal of Research in Psychological Health 2016; 10: 53-67.
33. Underwood L, Waldie KE, Peterson E, D'Souza S, Verbiest M, McDaid F, et al. Paternal Depression Symptoms During Pregnancy and After Childbirth Among Participants in the Growing Up in New Zealand Study. JAMA Psychiatry 2017;74: 360-9.
34. Takehara K, Suto M, Kakee N, Tachibana Y, Mori R. Prenatal and early postnatal depression and child maltreatment among Japanese fathers. Child Abuse Negl 2017; 70: 231-39.
35. Montazeri A, Mousavi SJ, Omidvari S, Tavousi M, Hashemi A, Rostami T. Depression in Iran: a systematic review of the literature (2000-2010). Payesh 2013; 12: 567-94.
36. Nishimura A, Fujita Y, Katsuta M, Ishihara A, Ohashi K. Paternal postnatal depression in Japan: an investigation of correlated factors including relationship with a partner. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2015; 15: 128.
37. Shorey S, Ang L, Goh ECL, Lopez V. Paternal involvement of Singaporean fathers within six months postpartum: A follow-up qualitative study. Midwifery 2019; 70: 7-14.
38. Nishigori H, Obara T, Nishigori T, Metoki H, Mizuno S, Ishikuro M & et al. The prevalence and risk factors for postpartum depression symptoms of fathers at one and 6 months postpartum: an adjunct study of the Japan Environment & Children's Study. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2020; 33: 2797-804.
39. Matthey S, Barnett B, Ungerer J, Waters B. Paternal and maternal depressed mood during the transition to parenthood. J Affect Disord 2000; 60: 75–85.
40. Ramchandani PG, Psychogiou L, Vlachos H, Iles J, Sethna V, Netsi E, et al. Paternal depression: an examination of its links with father, child and family functioning in the postnatal period. Depress Anxiety 2011; 28: 471–7.
41. Da Costa D, Danieli C, Abrahamowicz M, Dasgupta K, Sewitch M, Lowensteyn I, et al. A prospective study of postnatal depressive symptoms and associated risk factors in first-time fathers. J Affect Disord 2019; 249:371-77.
42. Wenzel A, Haugen EN, Jackson LC, Robinson K. Prevalence of generalized anxiety at eight weeks postpartum. Arch Womens Ment Health.2003;6:43-9.
43. Ross LE, Gilbert Evans SE, Sellers EM, Romach MK. Measurement issues in postpartum depression part 1: anxiety as a feature of postpartum depression. Arch Womens Ment Health 2003; 6: 51-7.
44. Vismara L, Rollè L, Agostini F, Sechi C, Fenaroli V, Molgora S, et al. Perinatal Parenting Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Outcomes in First-Time Mothers and Fathers: A 3- to 6-Months Postpartum Follow-Up Study. Front Psychol 2016; 7: 938.
45. Philpott LF, Savage E, FitzGerald S, Leahy-Warren P. Anxiety in fathers in the perinatal period: A systematic review. Midwifery 2019; 76: 54-101.
46. Gutierrez-Galve L, Stein A, Hanington L, Heron J, Ramchandani P.Paternal depression in the postnatal period and child development: mediators and moderators. Pediatrics 2015; 135: e339-47.
47. Nath S, Russell G, Kuyken W, Psychogiou L, Ford T. Does father-child conflict mediate the association between fathers' postnatal depressive symptoms and children's adjustment problems at 7 years old? Psychol
Med 2016; 46: 1719-33.
48. Sweeney S, MacBeth A. The effects of paternal depression on child and adolescent outcomes: A systematic review. J Affect Disord 2016; 205: 44-59.
49. Tichovolsky MH, Griffith SF, Rolon-Arroyo B, Arnold DH, Harvey EA. A Longitudinal Study of Fathers' and Young Children's Depressive Symptoms. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2018; 47: S190-S204.
50. Šebela A, Hanka J, Mohr P. Diagnostics and modern trends in therapy of postpartum depression. Ceska Gynekol 2019; 84: 68-72.
51. Cameron E E, Hunter D, Sedov ID, Tomfohr-Madsen LM. What do dads want? Treatment preferences for paternal postpartum depression. J Affect Disord 2017; 215: 62-70.
52. Ayinde O, Lasebikan VO. Factors associated with paternal perinatal depression in fathers of newborns in
Nigeria. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 2019; 40: 57-65.
53. O'Brien AP, McNeil KA, Fletcher R, Conrad A, Wilson A J, Jones D, et al. New Fathers' Perinatal Depression and Anxiety-Treatment Options: An Integrative Review. Am J Mens Health 2017; 11: 863-76.
54. Sinclair F, Naud J.Social support and emergence of a feeling of parental efficiency: a pilot study on the contribution of the EcoFamille program. Sante Ment Que. 2005;30 :193-208.
2. Veisani Y, Sayehmiri K. Prevalence of Postpartum Depression in Iran - A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. The Iranian Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Infertility 2012; 15; 21-9.
3. Choi KW, Sikkema K J, Vythilingum B, Geerts L, Faure SC, Watt MH, et al. Maternal childhood trauma, postpartum depression, and infant outcomes: Avoidant affective processing as a potential mechanism. J Affect Disord 2017; 211:107-15.
4. Lieber A. A Guide to Common Depression after Childbirth. Postpartum Depression (PPD).2019. https://www.psycom.net/depression.central.post-partum.html
5. Irvine A, Rawlinson C, Bor W, Hoehn E. Evaluation of a collaborative group intervention for mothers with moderate to severe perinatal mental illness and their infants in Australia. Infant Ment Health J, 2021; 42(4): 560-572.
6. Zhang YP, Zhang LL, Wei HH, Zhang Y, Zhang CL, Porr C. Postpartum depression and the psychosocial predictors in first-time fathers from northwestern China. Midwifery 2016; 35: 47-52.
7. National Institute of Mental Health, 2015. Major Depression Among Adults. Available at: 〈https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/prevalence/major-depression-amongadults. shtml〉. (Accessed 12 December 2016).
8. Cummings EM, Keller PS, Davies PT. Towards a family process model of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms: exploring multiple relations with child and family functioning. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2005; 46: 479-89.
9. Feldman R, Edelman Arthur I. Parent-Infant Synchrony and the Social-Emotional Development of Triplets. Dev Psychol 2004; 40: 1133-47.
10. Solantaus T, Salo S. Paternal postnatal depression: fathers emerge from the wings. Lancet 2005; 365: 2158-9.
11. Musser AK, Ahmed AH, Foli KJ, Coddington JA. Paternal postpartum depression: what health care providers should know. J Pediatr Health Care 2013; 27: 479-85.
12. Swenson CW, DePorre JA, Haefner JK, Berger MB, Fenner DE. Postpartum depression screening and pelvic floor symptoms among women referred to a specialty postpartum perineal clinic. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2018; 218: 335.e1-335.e6.
13. Tham EK, Tan J, Chong YS, Kwek K, Saw SM, Teoh OH, et al. Associations between poor subjective prenatal sleep quality and postnatal depression and anxiety symptoms. J Affect Disord 2016; 202: 91-4.
14. Ghaedrahmati M, Kazemi A, Kheirabadi G, Ebrahimi A, Bahrami M. Postpartum depression risk factors: A narrative review. J Educ Health Promot 2017;6:60.
15. Fellmeth G, Opondo C, Henderson J, Redshaw M, McNeill J, Lynn F, et al. Identifying postnatal depression: Comparison of a self-reported depression item with Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale scores at three months postpartum. J Affect Disord 2019; 251:8-14.
16. Wee KY, Skouteris H, Pier C, Richardson B, Milgrom J. Correlates of ante- and postnatal depression in fathers: a systematic review. J Affect Disord 2011; 130:358-77.
17. Cameron E E, Sedov I D, Tomfohr-Madsen L M. Prevalence of paternal depression in pregnancy and the postpartum: an updated meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 2016; 206: 189–203.
18. Escribà-Agüir V, Artazcoz L. Gender differences in postpartum depression: a longitudinal cohort study.
J Epidemiol Community Health 2011; 65: 320-6.
19. Goodman J H. Paternal postpartum depression, its relationship to maternal postpartum depression, and implications for family health. J Adv Nurs.2004; 45: 26-35.
20. Suto M, Takehara K, Yamane Y, Ota E. Effects of prenatal childbirth education for partners of pregnant women on paternal postnatal mental health and couple relationship: A systematic review. J Affect Disord 2017; 210: 115-21.
21. Kamalifard M, Hasanpoor S, Babapour Kheiroddin J, Panahi S, Bayati Payan S. Relationship between Fathers' Depression and Perceived Social Support and Stress in Postpartum Period. J Caring Sci 2014; 3: 57-66.
22. Thiruchselvam T, Dozois DJ A, Bagby R M, Lobo DSS, Ravindran LN, Quilty LC. The role of outcome expectancy in therapeutic change across psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy for depression. J Affect Disord
2019: 251: 121-9.
23. Dabson K S, Mohammad Khani P. Psychometric Characteristics of Beck Depression Inventory II in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder. Journal of Rehabilitation 2007;8: 82-88.
24. Gollan JK, Wisniewski SR, Luther JF, Eng HF, Dills JL, Sit D, Ciolino JD, Wisner KL. Generating an efficient version of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in an urban obstetrical population. J Affect Disord 2017; 208:615-20.
25. Ahmadi kani Golzar A, GoliZadeh Z. Validation of Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) for screening postpartum depression in Iran. IJPN 2015; 3:1-10.
26. Spanier GB. Measuring dyadic adjustment: New scales for assessing the quality of marriage and similar dyads. Journal of Marriage and Family 1976; 38; 15–28.
27. South SC, Krueger R F, Iacono WG. Factorial invariance of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale across gender. Psychol Assess 2009; 21: 622-8.
28. Reece SM. The parents’ expectations survey: a measure of perceived self-efficacy. Clin Nurs Res 1992; 1: 336–46.
29. Abidin R R. Parenting Stress Index: Manual. Psychological Resources, Odessa, Florida 1995.
30. Barroso NE, Hungerford GM, Garcia D, Graziano PA, Bagner DM. Psychometric properties of the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) in a high-risk sample of mothers and their infants. Psychol Assess 2016; 28: 1331-35.
31. Zimet GD, Dahlem NW, Zimet SG, Farley GK. The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Journal of Personality Assessment 1988; 52:30-41.
32. Alipour A, Aliakbari Dehkordi M, Amini F, Hashemi Jashni. Relationship between perceived social support and adherence of treatment in Diabetes mellitus type 2: mediating role of resillency and hope. Journal of Research in Psychological Health 2016; 10: 53-67.
33. Underwood L, Waldie KE, Peterson E, D'Souza S, Verbiest M, McDaid F, et al. Paternal Depression Symptoms During Pregnancy and After Childbirth Among Participants in the Growing Up in New Zealand Study. JAMA Psychiatry 2017;74: 360-9.
34. Takehara K, Suto M, Kakee N, Tachibana Y, Mori R. Prenatal and early postnatal depression and child maltreatment among Japanese fathers. Child Abuse Negl 2017; 70: 231-39.
35. Montazeri A, Mousavi SJ, Omidvari S, Tavousi M, Hashemi A, Rostami T. Depression in Iran: a systematic review of the literature (2000-2010). Payesh 2013; 12: 567-94.
36. Nishimura A, Fujita Y, Katsuta M, Ishihara A, Ohashi K. Paternal postnatal depression in Japan: an investigation of correlated factors including relationship with a partner. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2015; 15: 128.
37. Shorey S, Ang L, Goh ECL, Lopez V. Paternal involvement of Singaporean fathers within six months postpartum: A follow-up qualitative study. Midwifery 2019; 70: 7-14.
38. Nishigori H, Obara T, Nishigori T, Metoki H, Mizuno S, Ishikuro M & et al. The prevalence and risk factors for postpartum depression symptoms of fathers at one and 6 months postpartum: an adjunct study of the Japan Environment & Children's Study. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2020; 33: 2797-804.
39. Matthey S, Barnett B, Ungerer J, Waters B. Paternal and maternal depressed mood during the transition to parenthood. J Affect Disord 2000; 60: 75–85.
40. Ramchandani PG, Psychogiou L, Vlachos H, Iles J, Sethna V, Netsi E, et al. Paternal depression: an examination of its links with father, child and family functioning in the postnatal period. Depress Anxiety 2011; 28: 471–7.
41. Da Costa D, Danieli C, Abrahamowicz M, Dasgupta K, Sewitch M, Lowensteyn I, et al. A prospective study of postnatal depressive symptoms and associated risk factors in first-time fathers. J Affect Disord 2019; 249:371-77.
42. Wenzel A, Haugen EN, Jackson LC, Robinson K. Prevalence of generalized anxiety at eight weeks postpartum. Arch Womens Ment Health.2003;6:43-9.
43. Ross LE, Gilbert Evans SE, Sellers EM, Romach MK. Measurement issues in postpartum depression part 1: anxiety as a feature of postpartum depression. Arch Womens Ment Health 2003; 6: 51-7.
44. Vismara L, Rollè L, Agostini F, Sechi C, Fenaroli V, Molgora S, et al. Perinatal Parenting Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Outcomes in First-Time Mothers and Fathers: A 3- to 6-Months Postpartum Follow-Up Study. Front Psychol 2016; 7: 938.
45. Philpott LF, Savage E, FitzGerald S, Leahy-Warren P. Anxiety in fathers in the perinatal period: A systematic review. Midwifery 2019; 76: 54-101.
46. Gutierrez-Galve L, Stein A, Hanington L, Heron J, Ramchandani P.Paternal depression in the postnatal period and child development: mediators and moderators. Pediatrics 2015; 135: e339-47.
47. Nath S, Russell G, Kuyken W, Psychogiou L, Ford T. Does father-child conflict mediate the association between fathers' postnatal depressive symptoms and children's adjustment problems at 7 years old? Psychol
Med 2016; 46: 1719-33.
48. Sweeney S, MacBeth A. The effects of paternal depression on child and adolescent outcomes: A systematic review. J Affect Disord 2016; 205: 44-59.
49. Tichovolsky MH, Griffith SF, Rolon-Arroyo B, Arnold DH, Harvey EA. A Longitudinal Study of Fathers' and Young Children's Depressive Symptoms. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2018; 47: S190-S204.
50. Šebela A, Hanka J, Mohr P. Diagnostics and modern trends in therapy of postpartum depression. Ceska Gynekol 2019; 84: 68-72.
51. Cameron E E, Hunter D, Sedov ID, Tomfohr-Madsen LM. What do dads want? Treatment preferences for paternal postpartum depression. J Affect Disord 2017; 215: 62-70.
52. Ayinde O, Lasebikan VO. Factors associated with paternal perinatal depression in fathers of newborns in
Nigeria. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 2019; 40: 57-65.
53. O'Brien AP, McNeil KA, Fletcher R, Conrad A, Wilson A J, Jones D, et al. New Fathers' Perinatal Depression and Anxiety-Treatment Options: An Integrative Review. Am J Mens Health 2017; 11: 863-76.
54. Sinclair F, Naud J.Social support and emergence of a feeling of parental efficiency: a pilot study on the contribution of the EcoFamille program. Sante Ment Que. 2005;30 :193-208.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 16, No 4 (December 2022) | |
| Section | Original Articles | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/jfrh.v16i4.11358 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Father Depression Postpartum Period Psychology Marital Relationship Paternal Behavior | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Shariat M, Abedinia N, Charousaei H, Fatahi F. The Relationship Between Paternal Postpartum Depression and Psychosocial Variables: A longitudinal Study in Iran. J Family Reprod Health. 2022;16(4):272-281.
