Being Married Increases Life Expectancy of White but Not Black Americans
,
Abstract
Objective: The positive effect of high socioeconomic position (SEP) on health is well established. According Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory, however, the SEP-health link is smaller for Blacks compared to Whites. Using a 25-year follow up data of a national sample, this study tested racial differences in the effects of marital status on life expectancy among American adults.
Materials and methods: The data of Americans’ Changing Lives (ACL, 1986 – 2011) were used. The ACL is a nationally representative longitudinal cohort study followed 3,361 White or Blacks adults from 1986 to 2011. The predictor of interest was marital status in 1986. Confounders included demographic factors (age and gender), SEP (education and employment), health behaviors (drinking, smoking, and physical activity), and health status (depressive symptoms, chronic disease, and self-rated health) all measured at baseline. Race was the moderator variable. All-cause mortality was the main dependent variable (outcome). Cox proportional hazard modeling was applied for data analysis.
Results: In the overall sample, individuals who were married at baseline had a lower risk of mortality during the 25 years of follow up. Race altered the effect of marital status on life expectancy, indicating smaller protective effect for Blacks relative to Whites. Race –specific Cox regression models showed an association between marital status and life expectancy for White but not Black Americans.
Conclusion: In line with the MDRs theory, the health gain that follows marital status is diminished for Black Americans compared to White Americans. Only equalizing SEP across racial groups may not be adequate for eliminating racial/ethnic health inequalities. Policies should go beyond SEP and reduce societal and structural barriers that disproportionately hinder Blacks from translating their SEP indicators to desirable health outcomes.
1. Mirowsky J, Ross CE. Education, health, and the default American lifestyle. J Health Soc Behav 2015; 56: 297-306.
2. Ross CE, Mirowsky J. Refining the association between education and health: the effects of quantity, credential, and selectivity. Demography 1999; 36: 445-60.
3. Marmot M. Social determinants of health inequalities. Lancet 2005; 365: 1099-104.
4. Marmot M. The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity. London: Bloomsbury Press, 2004.
5. Marmot M. Economic and social determinants of disease. Bull World Health Organ 2001; 79: 988-9.
6. Assari S, Caldwell CH. Family income at birth and risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder at age 15: racial differences. Children (Basel) 2019; 6: E10.
7. Assari S. Socioeconomic determinants of systolic blood pressure; Minorities’ diminished returns. Journal of Health Economics and Development 2019; 1: 1-11.
8. Assari S, Schatten HT, Arias SA, Miller IW, Camargo CA, Boudreaux ED. Higher educational attainment is associated with lower risk of a future suicide attempt among non-hispanic whites but not non-hispanic blacks. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2019 ; 6:1001-1010.
9. Assari S. Parental educational attainment and mental well-being of college students; diminished returns of blacks. Brain Sci 2018; 8: E193.
10. Assari S, Preiser B, Kelly M. Education and income predict future emotional well-being of whites but not blacks: A ten-year cohort. Brain Sci 2018; 8: E122.
11. Assari S, Bazargan M. Unequal effects of educational attainment on workplace exposure to second-hand smoke by race and ethnicity; Minorities' diminished returns in the national health interview survey (NHIS). J Med Res Innov 2019; 3: e000179.
12. Assari S. Life expectancy gain due to employment status depends on race, gender, education, and their intersections. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2018; 5: 375-86.
13. Assari S, Caldwell CH, Zimmerman MA. Family structure and subsequent anxiety symptoms; minorities' diminished return. Brain Sci 2018; 8: E97.
14. Assari S, Hani N. Household income and children's unmet dental care need; Blacks' diminished return. Dent J (Basel) 2018; 6: E17.
15. Assari S, Lapeyrouse LM, Neighbors HW. Income and self-rated mental health: diminished returns for high income black Americans. Behav Sci (Basel) 2018; 8: E50.
16. Assari S, Mistry R. Educational attainment and smoking status in a national sample of American adults; Evidence for the blacks' diminished return. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018; 15: E763.
17. Assari S, Moghani Lankarani M. Poverty status and childhood asthma in white and black families: National Survey of Children's Health. Healthcare (Basel) 2018; 6: E62.
18. Assari S. Parental educational attainment and academic performance of American college students; blacks' diminished returns. J Health Econ Dev 2019; 1: 21-31.
19. Assari S. Parental education attainment and educational upward mobility; role of race and gender. Behav Sci (Basel) 2018; 8: E107.
20. Assari S. Race, intergenerational social mobility and stressful life events. Behav Sci (Basel) 2018; 8: E86.
21. Marmot MG, Bell R. Action on health disparities in the United States: commission on social determinants of health. JAMA 2009; 301: 1169-71.
22. Ruiz M, Goldblatt P, Morrison J, Porta D, Forastiere F, Hryhorczuk D, et al. Impact of low maternal education on early childhood overweight and obesity in Europe. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2016; 30: 274-84.
23. Zajacova A, Johnson-Lawrence V. Anomaly in the education-health gradient: Biomarker profiles among adults with subbaccalaureate attainment levels. SSM Popul Health 2016; 2: 360-4.
24. Zajacova A, Hummer RA, Rogers RG. Education and health among U.S. working-age adults: a detailed portrait across the full educational attainment spectrum. Biodemography Soc Biol 2012; 58: 40-61.
25. Zajacova A. Education, gender, and mortality: does schooling have the same effect on mortality for men and women in the US? Soc Sci Med 2006; 63: 2176-90.
26. Zajacova A, Rogers RG, Johnson-Lawrence V. Glitch in the gradient: additional education does not uniformly equal better health. Soc Sci Med 2012; 75: 2007-12.
27. Hudson DL, Bullard KM, Neighbors HW, Geronimus AT, Yang J, Jackson JS. Are benefits conferred with greater socioeconomic position undermined by racial discrimination among African American men? J Mens Health 2012; 9: 127-36.
28. Assari S. High income protects whites but not African Americans against risk of depression. Healthcare (Basel) 2018; 6: E37.
29. Fuller-Rowell TE, Curtis DS, Doan SN, Coe CL. Racial disparities in the health benefits of educational attainment: a study of inflammatory trajectories among African American and white adults. Psychosom Med 2015; 77: 33-40.
30. Assari S, Lankarani MM. Education and alcohol consumption among older americans; black-white differences. Front Public Health 2016; 4: 67.
31. Assari S. Family socioeconomic position at birth and school bonding at age 15; blacks' diminished returns. Behav Sci (Basel) 2019; 9: E26.
32. Assari S. Health disparities due to diminished return among black Americans: Public Policy Solutions. Social Issues and Policy Review 2018; 12: 112-45.
33. Assari S. Unequal gain of equal resources across racial groups. Int J Health Policy Manag 2018; 7: 1-9.
34. Assari S, Lankarani MM, Lankarani RM. Ethnicity modifies the additive effects of anxiety and drug use disorders on suicidal ideation among black adults in the united states. Int J Prev Med 2013; 4: 1251-7.
35. Assari S. Combined racial and gender differences in the long-term predictive role of education on depressive symptoms and chronic medical conditions. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2017; 4: 385-96.
36. Assari S, Caldwell CH. High risk of depression in high-income African American boys. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2018; 5: 808-19.
37. Assari S, Mistry R. Diminished return of employment on ever smoking among hispanic whites in Los Angeles. Health Equity 2019; 3: 138–44.
38. Assari S, Farokhnia M, Mistry R. Education attainment and alcohol binge drinking: diminished returns of hispanics in Los Angeles. Behav Sci (Basel) 2019; 9: E9.
39. Assari S, Lankarani M. Educational attainment promotes fruit and vegetable intake for whites but not blacks. J-Multidisciplinary Scientific Journal 2018; 1: 29-41.
40. Assari S. Family income reduces risk of obesity for white but not black children. children (Basel) 2018; 5: E73.
41. Assari S, Nikahd A, Malekahmadi MR, Lankarani MM, Zamanian H. Race by gender group differences in the protective effects of socioeconomic factors against sustained health problems across five domains. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2016.
42. Assari S. The benefits of higher income in protecting against chronic medical conditions are smaller for African Americans than whites. Healthcare (Basel) 2018; 6: E2.
43. Assari S, Lankarani MM. Race and urbanity alter the protective effect of education but not income on mortality. Front Public Health 2016; 4: 100.
44. Assari S, Caldwell CH, Mincy R. Family socioeconomic status at birth and youth impulsivity at age 15; blacks' diminished return. Children (Basel)
2018; 5: E58.
45. Assari S, Lankarani MM, Caldwell CH. Does discrimination explain high risk of depression among high-income african American men? Behav Sci (Basel) 2018; 8: E40.
46. Assari S, Thomas A, Caldwell CH, Mincy RB. Blacks' diminished health return of family structure and socioeconomic status; 15 years of follow-up of a national urban sample of youth. J Urban Health 2018; 95: 21-35.
47. Assari S, Khoshpouri P, Chalian H. Combined effects of race and socioeconomic Status on Cancer Beliefs, Cognitions, and Emotions. Healthcare (Basel) 2019; 7: E17.
48. Assari S. Blacks' diminished return of education attainment on subjective health; mediating effect of income. Brain Sci 2018; 8: E176.
49. Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, Williams DR, Mero RP, Chen J. Socioeconomic factors, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of US adults. JAMA 1998; 279: 1703-8.
50. Lantz PM, House JS, Mero RP, Williams DR. Stress, life events, and socioeconomic disparities in health: results from the Americans' changing lives study. J Health Soc Behav 2005; 46: 274-88.
51. Radloff LS. The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement 1977; 1: 385-401.
52. Radloff LS, Rae DS. Susceptibility and precipitating factors in depression: sex differences and similarities. J Abnorm Psychol 1979; 88: 174-81.
53. Radloff LS. The use of the center for epidemiologic studies depression scale in adolescents and young adults. J Youth Adolesc 1991; 20: 149-66.
54. Assari S, Moazen-Zadeh E. Confirmatory factor analysis of the 12-item center for epidemiologic studies depression scale among blacks and whites. Front Psychiatry 2016; 7: 178.
55. Assari S. Number of chronic medical conditions fully mediates the effects of race on mortality; 25-year follow-up of a nationally representative sample of americans. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2017; 4: 623-31.
56. Idler EL, Benyamini Y. Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. J Health Soc Behav 1997; 38: 21-37.
57. Assari S. Educational attainment better protects african american women than african american men against depressive symptoms and psychological Distress. Brain Sc 2018; 8: E182.
58. Ross CE, Mirowsky J. Does employment affect health? J Health Soc Behav 1995; 36: 230-43.
59. Ross CE, Mirowsky J. The interaction of personal and parental education on health. Soc Sci Med 2011; 72: 591-9.
60. Assari S, Moghani Lankarani M, Caldwell CH, Zimmerman M. Anxiety symptoms during adolescence predicts salivary cortisol in early adulthood among blacks; sex differences. Int J Endocrinol Metab 2015; 13: e18041.
61. Assari S, Caldwell CH, Mincy RB. Maternal educational attainment at birth promotes future self-rated health of white but not black youth: A 15-year cohort of a national sample. J Clin Med 2018; 7: E93.
62. Assari S, Caldwell CH. Social determinants of perceived discrimination among black youth: intersection of ethnicity and gender. Children (Basel) 2018; 5: E24.
63. Angner E, Hullett S, Allison J. "I'll die with the hammer in my hand ": John Henryism as a predictor of happiness. J Econ Psychol 2011; 32: 357-66.
64. Stevens-Watkins D, Knighton JS, Allen K, Fisher S, Crowell C, Mahaffey C, Leukefeld C, Oser C. John Henryism active coping as a cultural correlate of substance abuse treatment participation among African American women. J Subst Abuse Treat 2016; 63: 54-60.
65. Flaskerud JH. Coping and health status: John Henryism. Issues Ment Health Nurs 2012; 33: 712-5.
66. Lehto RH, Stein KF. The impact of John Henryism on self-reported health behaviors in African American men. J Transcult Nurs 2013; 24: 291-6.
67. James SA, Hartnett SA, Kalsbeek WD. John Henryism and blood pressure differences among black men. J Behav Med 1983; 6: 259-78.
68. Sellers SL, Neighbors HW, Bonham VL. Goal-striving stress and the mental health of college-educated black American men: the protective effects of system-blame. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2011; 81: 507-18.
69. Cain LR, Glover L, Young B, Sims M. Goal-striving stress is associated with chronic kidney disease among participants in the Jackson heart study. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2019; 6: 64-9.
70. Sellers SL, Neighbors HW. Goal-striving stress, social economic status, and the mental health of black Americans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999; 896: 469-73.
71. Sellers SL, Neighbors HW, Zhang R, Jackson JS. The impact of goal-striving stress on physical health of white Americans, African Americans, and Caribbean blacks. Ethn Dis 2012; 22: 21-8.
72. Mouzon DM, Watkins DC, Perry R, Simpson TM, Mitchell JA. Intergenerational mobility and goal-striving stress among black Americans: The Roles of Ethnicity and Nativity Status. J Immigr Minor Health 2019; 21: 393-400.
2. Ross CE, Mirowsky J. Refining the association between education and health: the effects of quantity, credential, and selectivity. Demography 1999; 36: 445-60.
3. Marmot M. Social determinants of health inequalities. Lancet 2005; 365: 1099-104.
4. Marmot M. The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity. London: Bloomsbury Press, 2004.
5. Marmot M. Economic and social determinants of disease. Bull World Health Organ 2001; 79: 988-9.
6. Assari S, Caldwell CH. Family income at birth and risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder at age 15: racial differences. Children (Basel) 2019; 6: E10.
7. Assari S. Socioeconomic determinants of systolic blood pressure; Minorities’ diminished returns. Journal of Health Economics and Development 2019; 1: 1-11.
8. Assari S, Schatten HT, Arias SA, Miller IW, Camargo CA, Boudreaux ED. Higher educational attainment is associated with lower risk of a future suicide attempt among non-hispanic whites but not non-hispanic blacks. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2019 ; 6:1001-1010.
9. Assari S. Parental educational attainment and mental well-being of college students; diminished returns of blacks. Brain Sci 2018; 8: E193.
10. Assari S, Preiser B, Kelly M. Education and income predict future emotional well-being of whites but not blacks: A ten-year cohort. Brain Sci 2018; 8: E122.
11. Assari S, Bazargan M. Unequal effects of educational attainment on workplace exposure to second-hand smoke by race and ethnicity; Minorities' diminished returns in the national health interview survey (NHIS). J Med Res Innov 2019; 3: e000179.
12. Assari S. Life expectancy gain due to employment status depends on race, gender, education, and their intersections. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2018; 5: 375-86.
13. Assari S, Caldwell CH, Zimmerman MA. Family structure and subsequent anxiety symptoms; minorities' diminished return. Brain Sci 2018; 8: E97.
14. Assari S, Hani N. Household income and children's unmet dental care need; Blacks' diminished return. Dent J (Basel) 2018; 6: E17.
15. Assari S, Lapeyrouse LM, Neighbors HW. Income and self-rated mental health: diminished returns for high income black Americans. Behav Sci (Basel) 2018; 8: E50.
16. Assari S, Mistry R. Educational attainment and smoking status in a national sample of American adults; Evidence for the blacks' diminished return. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018; 15: E763.
17. Assari S, Moghani Lankarani M. Poverty status and childhood asthma in white and black families: National Survey of Children's Health. Healthcare (Basel) 2018; 6: E62.
18. Assari S. Parental educational attainment and academic performance of American college students; blacks' diminished returns. J Health Econ Dev 2019; 1: 21-31.
19. Assari S. Parental education attainment and educational upward mobility; role of race and gender. Behav Sci (Basel) 2018; 8: E107.
20. Assari S. Race, intergenerational social mobility and stressful life events. Behav Sci (Basel) 2018; 8: E86.
21. Marmot MG, Bell R. Action on health disparities in the United States: commission on social determinants of health. JAMA 2009; 301: 1169-71.
22. Ruiz M, Goldblatt P, Morrison J, Porta D, Forastiere F, Hryhorczuk D, et al. Impact of low maternal education on early childhood overweight and obesity in Europe. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2016; 30: 274-84.
23. Zajacova A, Johnson-Lawrence V. Anomaly in the education-health gradient: Biomarker profiles among adults with subbaccalaureate attainment levels. SSM Popul Health 2016; 2: 360-4.
24. Zajacova A, Hummer RA, Rogers RG. Education and health among U.S. working-age adults: a detailed portrait across the full educational attainment spectrum. Biodemography Soc Biol 2012; 58: 40-61.
25. Zajacova A. Education, gender, and mortality: does schooling have the same effect on mortality for men and women in the US? Soc Sci Med 2006; 63: 2176-90.
26. Zajacova A, Rogers RG, Johnson-Lawrence V. Glitch in the gradient: additional education does not uniformly equal better health. Soc Sci Med 2012; 75: 2007-12.
27. Hudson DL, Bullard KM, Neighbors HW, Geronimus AT, Yang J, Jackson JS. Are benefits conferred with greater socioeconomic position undermined by racial discrimination among African American men? J Mens Health 2012; 9: 127-36.
28. Assari S. High income protects whites but not African Americans against risk of depression. Healthcare (Basel) 2018; 6: E37.
29. Fuller-Rowell TE, Curtis DS, Doan SN, Coe CL. Racial disparities in the health benefits of educational attainment: a study of inflammatory trajectories among African American and white adults. Psychosom Med 2015; 77: 33-40.
30. Assari S, Lankarani MM. Education and alcohol consumption among older americans; black-white differences. Front Public Health 2016; 4: 67.
31. Assari S. Family socioeconomic position at birth and school bonding at age 15; blacks' diminished returns. Behav Sci (Basel) 2019; 9: E26.
32. Assari S. Health disparities due to diminished return among black Americans: Public Policy Solutions. Social Issues and Policy Review 2018; 12: 112-45.
33. Assari S. Unequal gain of equal resources across racial groups. Int J Health Policy Manag 2018; 7: 1-9.
34. Assari S, Lankarani MM, Lankarani RM. Ethnicity modifies the additive effects of anxiety and drug use disorders on suicidal ideation among black adults in the united states. Int J Prev Med 2013; 4: 1251-7.
35. Assari S. Combined racial and gender differences in the long-term predictive role of education on depressive symptoms and chronic medical conditions. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2017; 4: 385-96.
36. Assari S, Caldwell CH. High risk of depression in high-income African American boys. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2018; 5: 808-19.
37. Assari S, Mistry R. Diminished return of employment on ever smoking among hispanic whites in Los Angeles. Health Equity 2019; 3: 138–44.
38. Assari S, Farokhnia M, Mistry R. Education attainment and alcohol binge drinking: diminished returns of hispanics in Los Angeles. Behav Sci (Basel) 2019; 9: E9.
39. Assari S, Lankarani M. Educational attainment promotes fruit and vegetable intake for whites but not blacks. J-Multidisciplinary Scientific Journal 2018; 1: 29-41.
40. Assari S. Family income reduces risk of obesity for white but not black children. children (Basel) 2018; 5: E73.
41. Assari S, Nikahd A, Malekahmadi MR, Lankarani MM, Zamanian H. Race by gender group differences in the protective effects of socioeconomic factors against sustained health problems across five domains. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2016.
42. Assari S. The benefits of higher income in protecting against chronic medical conditions are smaller for African Americans than whites. Healthcare (Basel) 2018; 6: E2.
43. Assari S, Lankarani MM. Race and urbanity alter the protective effect of education but not income on mortality. Front Public Health 2016; 4: 100.
44. Assari S, Caldwell CH, Mincy R. Family socioeconomic status at birth and youth impulsivity at age 15; blacks' diminished return. Children (Basel)
2018; 5: E58.
45. Assari S, Lankarani MM, Caldwell CH. Does discrimination explain high risk of depression among high-income african American men? Behav Sci (Basel) 2018; 8: E40.
46. Assari S, Thomas A, Caldwell CH, Mincy RB. Blacks' diminished health return of family structure and socioeconomic status; 15 years of follow-up of a national urban sample of youth. J Urban Health 2018; 95: 21-35.
47. Assari S, Khoshpouri P, Chalian H. Combined effects of race and socioeconomic Status on Cancer Beliefs, Cognitions, and Emotions. Healthcare (Basel) 2019; 7: E17.
48. Assari S. Blacks' diminished return of education attainment on subjective health; mediating effect of income. Brain Sci 2018; 8: E176.
49. Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, Williams DR, Mero RP, Chen J. Socioeconomic factors, health behaviors, and mortality: results from a nationally representative prospective study of US adults. JAMA 1998; 279: 1703-8.
50. Lantz PM, House JS, Mero RP, Williams DR. Stress, life events, and socioeconomic disparities in health: results from the Americans' changing lives study. J Health Soc Behav 2005; 46: 274-88.
51. Radloff LS. The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement 1977; 1: 385-401.
52. Radloff LS, Rae DS. Susceptibility and precipitating factors in depression: sex differences and similarities. J Abnorm Psychol 1979; 88: 174-81.
53. Radloff LS. The use of the center for epidemiologic studies depression scale in adolescents and young adults. J Youth Adolesc 1991; 20: 149-66.
54. Assari S, Moazen-Zadeh E. Confirmatory factor analysis of the 12-item center for epidemiologic studies depression scale among blacks and whites. Front Psychiatry 2016; 7: 178.
55. Assari S. Number of chronic medical conditions fully mediates the effects of race on mortality; 25-year follow-up of a nationally representative sample of americans. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2017; 4: 623-31.
56. Idler EL, Benyamini Y. Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. J Health Soc Behav 1997; 38: 21-37.
57. Assari S. Educational attainment better protects african american women than african american men against depressive symptoms and psychological Distress. Brain Sc 2018; 8: E182.
58. Ross CE, Mirowsky J. Does employment affect health? J Health Soc Behav 1995; 36: 230-43.
59. Ross CE, Mirowsky J. The interaction of personal and parental education on health. Soc Sci Med 2011; 72: 591-9.
60. Assari S, Moghani Lankarani M, Caldwell CH, Zimmerman M. Anxiety symptoms during adolescence predicts salivary cortisol in early adulthood among blacks; sex differences. Int J Endocrinol Metab 2015; 13: e18041.
61. Assari S, Caldwell CH, Mincy RB. Maternal educational attainment at birth promotes future self-rated health of white but not black youth: A 15-year cohort of a national sample. J Clin Med 2018; 7: E93.
62. Assari S, Caldwell CH. Social determinants of perceived discrimination among black youth: intersection of ethnicity and gender. Children (Basel) 2018; 5: E24.
63. Angner E, Hullett S, Allison J. "I'll die with the hammer in my hand ": John Henryism as a predictor of happiness. J Econ Psychol 2011; 32: 357-66.
64. Stevens-Watkins D, Knighton JS, Allen K, Fisher S, Crowell C, Mahaffey C, Leukefeld C, Oser C. John Henryism active coping as a cultural correlate of substance abuse treatment participation among African American women. J Subst Abuse Treat 2016; 63: 54-60.
65. Flaskerud JH. Coping and health status: John Henryism. Issues Ment Health Nurs 2012; 33: 712-5.
66. Lehto RH, Stein KF. The impact of John Henryism on self-reported health behaviors in African American men. J Transcult Nurs 2013; 24: 291-6.
67. James SA, Hartnett SA, Kalsbeek WD. John Henryism and blood pressure differences among black men. J Behav Med 1983; 6: 259-78.
68. Sellers SL, Neighbors HW, Bonham VL. Goal-striving stress and the mental health of college-educated black American men: the protective effects of system-blame. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2011; 81: 507-18.
69. Cain LR, Glover L, Young B, Sims M. Goal-striving stress is associated with chronic kidney disease among participants in the Jackson heart study. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2019; 6: 64-9.
70. Sellers SL, Neighbors HW. Goal-striving stress, social economic status, and the mental health of black Americans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999; 896: 469-73.
71. Sellers SL, Neighbors HW, Zhang R, Jackson JS. The impact of goal-striving stress on physical health of white Americans, African Americans, and Caribbean blacks. Ethn Dis 2012; 22: 21-8.
72. Mouzon DM, Watkins DC, Perry R, Simpson TM, Mitchell JA. Intergenerational mobility and goal-striving stress among black Americans: The Roles of Ethnicity and Nativity Status. J Immigr Minor Health 2019; 21: 393-400.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 13, No 3 (September 2019) | |
| Section | Original Articles | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/jfrh.v13i3.2126 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Population Differences Population Groups Ethnicity Ethnic Groups Blacks African Americans Chronic Medical Conditions Chronic Disease Socioeconomic Status Socioeconomic Position Marital Status Family Type | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Assari S, Bazargan M. Being Married Increases Life Expectancy of White but Not Black Americans. J Family Reprod Health. 2019;13(3):132-140.
